SECTION 0:
Historical intro

SECTION 1:
Approaches

1.1.-Grammar-translation
1.2.-Direct/Berlitz
1.3.-Minor approaches.
1.4.- TPR

SECTION 2:
Communicative vs. functional

2.1.- Communicative appr.
2.2.-Functional Approach

SECTION 3
The topic in the classroom

SECTION 4:
Bibliography

——————————————————————————————————

SECTION 0:
Historical intro

Modern English Teaching as a discipline was born in the USA, at the College of William and Mary, in 1779. Moreover, English teaching in Europe has been an education market for almost a century.

English teaching may be approached in an academic way, focused on functional-semantic patterns and grammar, typically in countries with little contact with commonwealth cultures. Within this framework, it is often called EFL, English as a foreign language.

In countries where some contact with English-speaking culture is possible, the approach is more communicative and teaching is built aiming at bilingualism, being called ESL, English for Speakers of Other Languages.

Sometimes, ESL teaching has even played a role in the biographical aspects of famous writers, such as James Joyce, who worked for Berlitz Schools in Switzerland during the 1920s and 1930s.

Research in ESL is emotionally charged:

While the teaching of Maths or Physics, that is, the methodology of teaching Maths or Physics, has, to a greater or lesser extent, remained the same, this is hardly the case with English or language teaching in general.

You easily find instances of successful ESL learning in the literature about the topic, in contradiction with the fact that most language programs are not successful. That’s what makes ESL/EFL research emotionally-charged.

Older methods and approaches such as the grammar translation method or the direct method are disposed of and even ridiculed as newer methods and approaches are invented and promoted as the only and complete solution to the problem of the high failure rates of foreign language students.

Much of the reason for this is that proponents of new methods have been so sure that their ideas are so new and so correct that they could not conceive that the older ones have enough validity to cause controversy and emphasis on new scientific advances has tended to blind researchers to precedents in older work.

Most books on language teaching list the various methods that have been used in the past, often ending with the author’s new method. These new methods seem to be created full-blown from the authors’ minds, as they generally give no credence to what was done before and how it relates to the new method.

It is also often inferred or even stated that older methods were completely ineffective or have died out completely when even the oldest methods are still used (e.g. the Berlitz version of the direct method).

SECTION 1: ESL/EFL APPROACHES

1.0: Introduction: EMPIRICAL vs. THEORETICAL METHODS

The development of foreign language teaching is not linear. There have been two major branches in the field, empirical and theoretical, which have almost completely-separate histories, with each gaining ground over the other at one point in time or another.

A) EMPIRICAL (structuralist)
Examples of researchers on the empiricist side are Jespersen, Palmer, Leonard Bloomfield who promote mimicry and memorization with pattern drills. These methods follow from the basic empiricist position that language acquisition basically results from habits formed by conditioning and drilling. In its most extreme form, language learning is basically the same as any other learning in any other species, human language being essentially the same as communication behaviour seen in other species.

B) THEORETICAL: Berlitz to Chomsky
On the other, are Francois Gouin, M.D. Berlitz, Elime de Sauzé, whose rationalist theories of language acquisition dovetail with linguistic work done by Noam Chomsky and others. These have led to a wider variety of teaching methods from grammar-translation, to Gouin’s “series method” or the direct methods of Berlitz and de Sauzé.
With these methods, students generate original and meaningful sentences to gain a functional knowledge of the rules of grammar. This follows from the rationalist position that man is born to think and language use is a uniquely human trait impossible in other species. Given that human languages share many common traits, the idea is that humans share a universal grammar which is built into our brain structure. This allows us to create sentences that we have never heard before, but can still be immediately understood by anyone who understands the specific language being spoken.

1.1: Until the 1950s: GRAMMAR TRANSLATION AND BERLITZ-GOUIN (DIRECT) METHODS.

A)THE CLASSICAL METHOD: GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION.

In the western world back in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, foreign language learning was associated with the learning of Latin and Greek, both were supposed to promote their speakers’ intellectuality. At the time, it was of vital importance to focus on grammatical rules, syntactic structures, along with rote memorisation of vocabulary and translation of literary texts. There was no provision for the oral use of the languages under study; after all, both Latin and Greek were not being taught for oral communication but for the sake of their speakers’ becoming “scholarly?” or creating an illusion of “erudition.” Late in the nineteenth century, the Classical Method came to be known as the Grammar Translation Method, which offered very little beyond an insight into the grammatical rules attending the process of translating from the second to the native language.
It is widely recognised that the Grammar Translation Method is still one of the most popular and favourite models of language teaching, which has been rather stalwart and impervious to educational reforms, remaining a standard and sine qua non methodology. With hindsight, we could say that its contribution to language learning has been lamentably limited, since it has shifted the focus from the real language to a “dissected body” of nouns, adjectives, and prepositions, doing nothing to enhance a student’s communicative ability in the foreign language.

B)BERLITZ-GOUIN (DIRECT) METHODS
The last two decades of the nineteenth century ushered in a new age. In his The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages (1880), Francois Gouin described his “harrowing” experiences of learning German, which helped him gain insights into the intricacies of language teaching and learning. Living in Hamburg for one year, he attempted to master the German language by dint of memorising a German grammar book and a list of the 248 irregular German verbs, instead of conversing with the natives. Exulting in the security that the grounding in German grammar offered him, he hastened to go to the University to test his knowledge. To no avail. He could not understand a word! After his failure, he decided to memorise the German roots, but with no success. He went so far as to memorise books, translate Goethe and Schiller, and learn by heart
30,000 words in a dictionary, only to meet with failure. Upon returning to France, Gouin discovered that his three-year-old nephew had managed to become a chatterbox of French – a fact that made him think that the child held the secret to learning a language. Thus, he began observing his nephew and came to the conclusion (arrived at by another researcher a century before him!) that language learning is a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions and then using language to represent these conceptions. Equipped with this knowledge, he devised a teaching method premised upon these insights. It was against this background that the Series Method was created, which taught learners directly a “series” of connected sentences that are easy to understand. For instance,
I stretch out my arm. I take hold of the handle. I turn the handle. I open the door. I pull the door.
Nevertheless, this approach to language learning was short-lived and, only a generation later, gave place to the Direct Method, posited by Charles Berlitz.
The basic tenet of Berlitz’s method was that second language learning is similar to first language learning. In this light, there should be lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little if any analysis of grammatical rules and syntactic structures. In short, the principles of the Direct Method were as follows:
Classroom instruction was conducted in the target language
There was an inductive approach to grammar
Only everyday vocabulary was taught
Concrete vocabulary was taught through pictures and objects, while abstract vocabulary
was taught by association of ideas
The Direct Method enjoyed great popularity at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth but it was difficult to use, mainly because of the constraints of budget, time, and classroom size. Yet, after a period of decline, this method has been revived, leading to the emergence of the Audiolingual Method.

1.2 THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD (STRUCTURALISM)The origins of this method trace back to the entry of the United States into World War II since the government aimed to teach foreign languages to avoid Americans becoming isolated from scientific advances in other countries. The National Defense Education Act provided funds for the study and analysis of modern languages based on the earlier experience of the army programs such as the so-called ASTP (Army Specialized Training Program). This program was established for military personnel in 1942 in American universities, and its main objective was for students to attain conversational proficiency in different foreign languages through significant drills.
This fact had a significant effect on language teaching in America, and in fact, new approaches on language teaching were soon developed, and toward the end of the 1950s a new approach emerged under the name of Audiolingualism (term coined by Professor Nelson Brooks in 1964. It is based in structural linguistics (structuralism) and behavioristic psychology (Skinner’s behaviorism). Therefore, it is primarily an oral approach to language teaching and there is little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the language.
The audio- lingual method aims at teaching the language skills in the order of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, and is based on using drills for the formation of good language habits. Thus students are given a stimulus, which they respond to. If their response is correct, it is rewarded, so the habit will be formed; if it is incorrect, it is corrected, so that it will be suppressed. As Rivers (1981) states, material is presented in spoken form, and the emphasis in the early years is on the language as it is spoken in everyday situations.
It was a methodological innovation which combined structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology. Therefore linguists such as Leonard Bloomfield, developed training programs within an anthropological and linguistic tradition. The best known of these programs was the “informant method”, based on a strict timetable (ten hours a day during six days a week), fifteen hours drill with native speakers and almost thirty hours of private study over nearly three six-week sessions. Statistics show that excellent results were often achieved in small classes of mature and highly motivated students.

The outbreak of World War II heightened the need for Americans to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies alike. To this end, bits and pieces of the Direct Method were appropriate in order to form and support this new method, the “Army Method” which came to be known in the 1950s as the Audiolingual Method.
The Audiolingual Method was based on linguistic and psychological theory and one of its main premises was the scientific descriptive analysis of a wide assortment of languages. On the other hand, conditioning and habit-formation models of learning put forward by behaviouristic phychologists were married with the pattern practices of the Audiolingual Method. The following points sum up the characteristics of the method:
Dependence on mimicry and memorisation of set phrases
Teaching structural patterns by means of repetitive drills (Repetitio est mater studiorum??)
No grammatical explanation
Learning vocabulary in context
Use of tapes and visual aids
Focus on pronunciation
• Immediate reinforcement of correct responses
But its popularity waned after 1964, partly because of Wilga Rivers’ exposure of its shortcomings. It fell short of promoting communicative ability, as it paid undue attention to memorisation and drilling, while downgrading the role of context and world knowledge in language learning. After all, it was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation and errors were not necessarily bad or pernicious.

Skeleton:

Introduction

1.- The classical method (grammar translation)

2.-The direct method (Berlitz)

3.- Audiolingual method

4.- Designer methods

5.-Communicative language teching

6.-Conclusion

Second Skeleton

OUTLINE

1.   INTRODUCTION.

1.1.       Aims of the unit.

1.2.       Notes on bibliography.

2   THE ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE TEACHING.

3.    A HISTORY OF THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE.

3.1.        Key issues: approaches versus methods.

3.2.        Up to the eighteenth century: The spread of English language teaching in
Europe.

3.2.1.       Ancient Times.                        ^

3.2.2.       Europe in Early Times. The decline

3.3.  The nineteenth century: Approaches and Methods on language teaching.

3.3.1.       The Grammar-Translation method.

3.3.2.       Individual reformers: Marcel, Prendergast and Gouin.

3.3.3.       The Reform Movement: Sweet, Vietor and Passy. The role of phonetics.

3.3.4.       The Direct Method. Natural methods from Montaigne to Berlitz.

3.4.  The twentieth century: A communicative approach.

3.4.1.       The Communicative Language Teaching Approach.

3.4.2.       The influence of sociology and psychology on language teaching.

3.4.3.       Approaches and theories of language and language learning.

3.4.3.1.    Approaches of language and language learning.

3.4.3.2.    Influential theories on language learning.

3.4.4.    Language teaching methods.

3.4.4.1.    The Oral Approach and Situational Language teaching method.

3.4.4.2.    The Audiolingual method.

3.4.4.3.    Total Physical Response.

3.4.4.4.    The Silent Way.

3.4.4.5.    Community Language Learning.

3.4.4.6.    Suggestopedia.

4.              NEW DIRECTIONS ON LANGUAGE TEACHING.

5.              CONCLUSION.

6.              BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1.1.  Aims of the unit.

The present work aims to provide a detailed account of the evolution of language from its origins, as an object of study, to a theory of language teaching. As Albert C. Baugh (1993) states, the basis for an understanding of present-day English and for an enlightened attitude towards questions affecting the language today is a knowledge of its origins.

A historical and cultural setting links the nature of language to a theory of language teaching and a tradition in teaching English as a foreign language from ancient roots to present-day trends. In order to do so, subsequent sections will enable us to become better informed about the different methods, approaches and language acquisition theories on English teaching as a foreign language at different periods, where special attention is paid to present-day communicative approaches. For extensive comments, within the framework of different research fields, new directions on language teaching are offered to reflect the learner’s need within the current educational system. In a final section, a conclusion examines the strengths and weaknesses of methods and approaches from a broad perspective.

1.2.  Notes on bibliography.

Numerous sources have contributed to provide an overall basis for the development of the unit. A valuable introduction to the study of language is given by Otto Jespersen, Language: Its Nature, Development and Origin (1922); David Crystal, Linguistics (1985); and Baugh and Cable, A History of the English Language (1993). For a historical overview of the tradition of language teaching, see Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (1992) and Howatt, A History of English Language Teaching (1984). Among the many general works that incorporate the teaching of English as a foreign language, see especially and Wilga M. Rivers, Teaching Foreign-Language Skills (1981) and on theories of language acquisition, see Krashen, S. D., and T. D. Terrell, The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom (1983). The most complete record of current publications on new directions in language teaching is published by Association Espanola de Linguistics Applied (AESLA) and its annual supplements. For a comprehensive overview, see the following collections: Universidad de Alcala, La Linguistica Aplicada a finales del Siglo XX. Ensayos y propuestas (2001); Universidad de Barcelona, Trabajos en Linguistica Aplicada (2001); and Universidad de Leon, Perspectivas Recientes sobre el Discurso (2001). Bibliography is fully presented at the end of this work.

2. THE ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE TEACHING.

original intentions of the authors. According to Howatt (1984), a thorough education consists not

We saw in the preceding sections the relationship between method and approach. Within the study
of language different methods resulted from different approaches as responses to a variety of
historical issues and circumstances. Since ancient times, linguists and language specialists sought to
improve the quality of language teaching, elaborating principles and theories that came into force
from the nineteenth century on. Linguists such as Palmer, Skinner, Chomsky, and Krashen among
others, have contributed to this development of present-day approaches which developed in current
methods.                         

Following Richards & Rodgers (1992), theories about the nature of language and of language learning are the source of principles in language teaching. Within a theory of language, at least three different theoretical views provide current approaches and methods in language teaching.

The first, the structural view, is the most traditional of the three. Within its theory, language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning, and is defined in terms of phonological and grammatical units, grammatical operations and lexical items. Some methods have embodied this particular view of language over the years. Thus Audiolingualism, and contemporary methods as Total Physical Response and the Silent Way, share this view of language. Supporters of this view are linguists such as Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield within a tradition on Structuralism although they follow different lines, thus anthropological and linguistic respectively.

From the second, the functional view, language is seen as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. A main tenet within this view is the notion of communication within a theory that emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of language. Content is also organized by categories of meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar.

3.4.3.2. Influential theories on language learning.

The four theories of language provide a theoretical framework to any particular teaching method from a structural, functional, interactional and eclectic point of view. However, we must bear in mind that they are incomplete in themselves and need to be complemented by theories of language learning. It is to this dimension that we now turn.

A theory of language learning needs a psycho-linguistic and cognitive approach to learning processes, such as habit formation, induction, inference, hypothesis testing, and generalization. Most of its researchers have been influenced by the development of generative theory where the most important area is the investigation of the acquisition of language by children The most prominent figures in this field are, among others, Stephen Krashen, Tracy D. Terrell and Noam Chomsky.

Stephen D. Krashen developed a second language acquisition research as a source for learning theories, he distinguishes two concepts here, acquisition and learning, where acquisition is seen as the basic process involved in developing language proficiency. For him, it is the unconscious development of the target language system as a result of using the language for real communication. Learning would be related to the conscious representation of grammatical knowledge and non-spontaneous processes. He developed the Monitor Model on which the Natural method was built.

Another theorist, Tracy D. Terrell is closely related to Krashen, since they both wrote a book named The Natural Approach (1983), and their theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place. Their learning theory is supported by three main principles. Firstly, they claim that comprehension precedes production (commonly known as ‘input’); secondly, they state that production may emerge in stages and students are not forced to

speak before they are ready; and thirdly the fact that the course syllabus consists of communicative goals, thus classroom activities are organized, by topic, not grammar (Krashen & Terrell 1983).

Chomsky’s view of linguistics is another important contribution to the study of the human mind, as a branch of cognitive psychology. Apart from showing the weaknesses of structural grammar, Chomsky demonstrated that creativity and individual sentences’ formation were fundamental characteristics of language, not part of the structural theories of language. His approach provides a humanistic view of teaching where priority is given to interactive processes of communication.

We also find other less influential theories reflected on methods, thus the Counseling-Learning
and Silent Way method which focus on the conditions to be held for successful learning without
specifying the learning processes. James Asher’s Total Physical Response (1977) centers on both
processes and conditions aspects of learning. Thus coordinating language production with body
movement and physical actions is believed to provide the conditions for success in language
learning.                                                                                             

Charles A. Curran’s approach, the Counseling-Learning (1972), focused mainly on creating the conditions necessary for successful learning, such as a good atmosphere of the classroom, where intimacy and security are a crucial factor together for students when producing language. The Silent Way method, developed by Caleb Gattegno, is also built on a conscious control of learning to heighten learning potential. We also observe some fringe methodologies sharing certain theories of language and theories of language learning. For instance, the linking of structuralism and behaviorism which produced Audiolingualism

3.4.4.    Language teaching methods.      

3.4.4.1. The Oral Approach and Situational Language teaching method.

This approach dates back to the 1920s and 1930s and develops a more scientific foundation for an oral approach than the one evidenced in the Direct Method. Its most prominent figures are the British applied linguists Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby, who developed the basis for a principled approach to methodology in language teaching. The terms Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching are not commonly used today, but the impact of the Oral Approach has been long lasting, and it has shaped the design of many widely used textbooks and courses, including many still being used today.

Therefore it is important to understand the principles and practices of this oral approach which resulted from a systematic study of the lexical and grammatical content of a language course. This approach involved principles of selection, organization and presentation of the material based on applied linguistic theory and practice. Thus, the role of vocabulary was seen as an essential component of reading proficiency, and parallel to this syllabus design was a focus on the grammatical content, viewed by Palmer as the underlying sentence patterns of the spoken language. This classification of English sentence patterns was incorporated into the first dictionary

for students of English as a foreign language, and some grammatical guides which became a standard reference source for textbook writers.

The Oral Approach was the accepted British approach to English language teaching by the 1950s, but in the sixties, another active proposal from Australia and termed Situational, entered this approach developing an influential set of teaching materials based on the notion of “situation”, linking structures to situations. Its main leader was George Pittman, and its main characteristics were as follows: material is taught orally before it is presented in written form; introduced and practiced situationally; and reading and writing are introduced only when sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established. The skills are approached through structure.

This third principle became a key feature characterized as a type of British “structuralism”, in which
speech was regarded as the basis of language, and structure was viewed as being at the heart of
speaking ability. In the words of Richards & Roberts (1992), this theory that knowledge of
structures must be linked to situations has been supported by British linguists, giving a prominent
place to meaning, context, and situation. Prominent figures such as M.A.K. Halliday and Palmer
emphasized the close relationship between the structure of language and the context and situations
in which language is used.                                       

3.4.4.2. The Audiolingual method.

The origins of this method trace back to the entry of the United States into World War II since the government aimed to teach foreign languages to avoid Americans becoming isolated from scientific advances in other countries. The National Defense Education Act (1958) provided funds for the study and analysis of modern languages based on the earlier experience of the army programs such as the so-called ASTP (Army Specialized Training Program). This program was established for military personnel in 1942 in American universities, and its main objective was for students to attain conversational proficiency in different foreign languages through significant drills.

This fact had a significant effect on language teaching in America, and in fact, new approaches on language teaching were soon developed, and toward the end of the 1950s a new approach emerged under the name of Audiolingualism (term coined by Professor Nelson Brooks in 1964. It is based in structural linguistics (structuralism) and behavioristic psychology (Skinner’s behaviorism). Therefore, it is primarily an oral approach to language teaching and there is little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the language.

The audio- lingual method aims at teaching the language skills in the order of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, and is based on using drills for the formation of good language habits. Thus students are given a stimulus, which they respond to. If their response is correct, it is rewarded, so the habit will be formed; if it is incorrect, it is corrected, so that it will be suppressed. As Rivers (1981) states, material is presented in spoken form, and the emphasis in the early years is on the language as it is spoken in everyday situations.

It was a methodological innovation which combined structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology. Therefore linguists such as Leonard Bloomfield, developed training programs within an anthropological and linguistic tradition. The best known of these programs was the “informant method”, based on a strict timetable (ten hours a day during six days a week), fifteen hours drill with native speakers and almost thirty hours of private study over nearly three six-week sessions. Statistics show that excellent results were often achieved in small classes of mature and highly motivated students.

3.4.4.3.  Total Physical Response.

Total Physical Response is linked to several traditions, such as psychology, learning theory, and humanistic pedagogy. This method is built around the combination of speech and action and was developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology. For him, including movements within the linguistic production reduces learner stress, creating a positive mood which facilitates learning. This emphasis on comprehension and the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language is not new. In the nineteenth century, Gouin acknowledged a situationally based teaching strategy in which action verbs served as a basis for practicing new language items.

This method owes much to structuralist or grammar-based views of language as most of vocabulary items and grammatical structures are learned through an instructor. Asher still sees a stimulus-response view as reminiscences of the views of behavioral psychologists, directed to right-brain learning. The main goal is to teach oral proficiency at a beginning level through the use of action-based drills in the imperative form.

This method is updated with references to more recent psychological theories and supported by prominent theorists as Krashen because of its emphasis on the role of comprehension in second language acquisition. However, Asher himself, points out the need for this method to be used in association with other methods to be fully successful.

3.4.4.4. The Silent Way.     

Caleb Gattegno introduced this classroom technique wherein the teacher remains silent while pupils output the language through simulated experiences using tokens and picture charts as central elements. For instance, a color-coded phonics (sound) chart called a fidel, with both vowel and consonant clusters on it, is projected onto a screen to be used simultaneously with a pointer, thus permitting the pupil to output continually the target language in a sequence of phonemes.

Brightly coloured rods are integrated into this method for pupils to learn spatial relationships, prepositions, colors, gender and number concepts, and to create multiple artificial settings through their physical placement.

This method works effectively to promote small group discussion. Students are encouraged to produce as much language as possible and to self-correct their pronunciation errors through manual gesticulation on the part of the instructor. The greatest strength of this method lies in its ability to draw students out orally, while the teacher listens. This inner criteria allow learners to monitor and self-correct their own production. It is here where this method differs notably from other ways of language learning.

3.4.4.5. Community Language Learning.

As the name indicates, this method follows a “humanistic” approach which was supported by
Charles A. Curran, a specialist in counseling and a professor of psychology at Chicago University.
His method is known as Counseling-Learning, and it redefines the roles of the teacher (counselor)
and learners (the clients) in the language classroom.                                                      

He developed a holistic approach to language learning, since human learning is both cognitive and
affective. For him, learning takes place in a communicative situation where teachers and learners
are involved in an interaction. One of its main tenets is for the student to develop his relationship
with the teacher.                                                                                        

This process is divided into five stages and compared to the onto genetic development of the child. Thus, feelings of security are established; achievement of independence from the teacher; the learner starts speaking independently; a sense of criticism is developed; and finally, the learner improves style and knowledge of linguistic appropriateness.

Curran wrote little about his theory which was to be developed by his student, La Forge. He built a theory on “basic sound and grammatical patterns” which started with criteria for sound features, the sentence, and abstract models of language in order to construct a basic grammar of the foreign language.

Since these humanistic technique of counseling students engage the whole person, including the emotions and feelings (affective part) as well as linguistic knowledge and behavioral skills, this method has been linked to bilingual and adult education programs.

3.4.3.6. Suggestopedia.

In the 1980s and 1990s, an extremely esoteric method was developed by a Bulgarian psychiatrist-educator called George Lozanov. The most outstanding features of this mystical method are, according to Rivers (1981), its arcane terminology and neologisms, and secondly, the arrangement of the classroom to create an optimal atmosphere to learning, by means of decoration, furniture, the authoritative behavior of the teacher and specially, through the use of music. Therapy theories are the reason of using music in the classroom as Lozanov calls upon in his use to relax learners as well as to structure, pace, and punctuate the presentation of linguistic material.

Lozanov acknowledges following a tradition on yoga and Soviet psychology, borrowing techniques for altering states of consciousness and concentration, and the use of rhythmic breathing. In fact, teachers are trained in a special way to read dialogues, using voice quality, intonation, and timing. Lozanov also claims that his method works equally well whether or not students spend time on outside study and promises success to the academically gifted and  non-gifted alike.

In the own words of Lozanov (1978), Suggestopedia prepares students for success by means of yoga, hypnosis, biofeeback or experimental science. Its main features such as scholarly citations, terminological jargon, and experimental data have received both support and criticisms. However, Suggestopedia is acknowledged to appear effective and harmonize with other successful techniques in language teaching methodology.

4. NEW DIRECTIONS ON LANGUAGE TEACHING.

What’s now, what’s next? The future is always uncertain when anticipating methodological directions in second language teaching, although applied linguistic journals assume the carrying on and refinement of current trends within a communicative approach. They are linked to present concerns on education, and they reflect current trends of language curriculum development at the level of cognitive strategies, literature, grammar, phonetics or technological innovative methods. The Internet Age anticipates the development of teaching and learning in instructional settings by means of an on-line collaboration system, perhaps via on-line computer networks or other technological resources.

A critical question for language educators is about What content” and “how much content” best supports language learning. The goal is to best match learner needs and interests and to promote optimal development of second language competence. The natural content for language educators is literature and language itself, and we are beginning to see a resurgence of interest in literature and in discourse and genre analysis, schema theory, pragmatics, and functional grammar propose an interest in functionally based approaches to language teaching.

Also, “Learning to Learn” is the key there in an instructional focus on language learning strategies. Such strategies include, at the most basic level, memory tricks, and at higher levels, cognitive and metacognitive strategies for learning, thinking, planning, and self-monitoring. Research findings suggest that strategies can indeed be taught to language learners, that learners will apply these strategies in language learning tasks. Simple and yet highly effective strategies, such as those that help learners remember and access new second language vocabulary items, will attract considerable instructional interest.

On revising the literature on language teaching theories, it is possible to get a sense of the wide range of proposals from the 1700′s to the present, with their weaknesses and strengths, from grammar-based methods to more natural approaches. There is still present a constant preoccupation for teachers and linguists to find more efficient and effective ways of teaching languages. This proliferation of approaches and methods is a relevant characteristic of contemporary second and foreign language teaching, and is only understood when the learner’s need is approached from an educational perspective. These approaches have been called natural, psychological, phonetic, new, reform, and direct, among others.

In the middle-methods period, a variety of methods were proclaimed as successors to the then prevailing Situational Language Teaching and Audio-Lingual methods. These alternatives were promoted under such titles as Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning, and Total Physical Response. In the 1980s, these methods in turn came to be overshadowed by more interactive views of language teaching, which collectively came to be known as Communicative Language Teaching. These CLT approaches include The Natural Approach and Community Language Learning.

Special attention has also been paid to the role of the teacher as a commander of classroom activity (eg., Audio-Lingual Method, Natural Approach, Suggestopedia, Total Physical Response) whereas others see the teacher as background facilitator and classroom colleague to the learners (eg., Communicative Language Teaching, Cooperative Language Learning).

Language learning theories have approached second language learning for adults and children around first language acquisition model. Schools such as Total Physical Response and Natural Approach claim that second language learning must be developed in the same way as first language acquisition although this is not the only model of language learning we have. However, the Silent Way and Suggestopedia schools claim that adult classroom learning must be developed in a different way children do, due to different cognitive and psychological features.

Bibliography, in a final section, will provide a source for readers to detail differences and similarities among the many different approaches and methods that have been proposed

Introduction to the study of language

-  Jespersen, O. 1922. Language: Its Nature, Development and Origin. London: Allen and Unwin.

-  Crystal, D. 1985. Linguistics. Harmondsworth, England. Penguin Books.

-  Baugh, A. & Cable, T. 1993. A History of the English Language. Prentice-Hall Editions.

On origins and evolution of language teaching

-  Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. 1992.  Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching   (2ⁿ   ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

-  Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English Language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

On approaches to language teaching and the teaching of English as a foreign language

-  Rivers, W. 1981. Teaching Foreign-Language Skills. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

-  Krashen, S. D., and Terrell, T. D. 1983. The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the
Classroom. Oxford: Pergamon.                                                                                 

New directions in language teaching

-  Revistas de la Asociacidn Espanola de Lingliistica Aplicada (AESLA): De la Cruz, Isabel;
Santamaria, Carmen; Tejedor, Cristina y Valero, Carmen. 2001. La Linguistica Aplicada a finales
del Siglo XX. Ensayos y propuestas. Universidad de Alcala.          _t

-  Celaya, M^a Luz; Fernandez-Villanueva, Marta; Naves, Teresa; Strunk, Oliver y Tragant, Elsa.
2001. Trabajos en Linguistica Aplicada . Universidad de Barcelona.

-  Moreno, Ana I. & Col well, Vera. 2001. Perspectivas Recientes sobre el Discurso. Universidad de
Leon.

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TOPIC 1. EVOLUTION OF THE DIDACTICS OF LANGUAGES. CURRENT

TRENDS IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE.

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES.

http://www.allfreeessays.com/student/HISTORY_OF_ENGLISH_LANGUAGE_TE ACHING.html

As the title implies, the English language teaching tradition has been subjected to a tremendous change, especially throughout the twentieth century. Perhaps more than any other discipline. This tradition has been practised, in various adaptations, in language classrooms all around the world for centuries. While the teaching of Maths or Physics, that is, the methodology of teaching Maths or Physics, has, to a greater or lesser extent, remained the same, this is hardly the case with English or language teaching in general. As will become evident in this topic, there are some milestones in the development of this tradition, which we will briefly touch upon, in an attempt to reveal the importance of research in the selection and implementation of the optimal methods and techniques for language teaching and learning.

1.         THE CLASSICAL METHOD: GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION.

In the western world back in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, foreign language learning was associated with the learning of Latin and Greek, both were supposed to promote their speakers’ intellectuality. At the time, it was of vital importance to focus on grammatical rules, syntactic structures, along with rote memorisation of vocabulary and translation of literary texts. There was no provision for the oral use of the languages under study; after all, both Latin and Greek were not being taught for oral communication but for the sake of their speakers’ becoming “scholarly?” or creating an illusion of “erudition.” Late in the nineteenth century, the Classical Method came to be known as the Grammar Translation Method, which offered very little beyond an insight into the grammatical rules attending the process of translating from the second to the native language.

It is widely recognised that the Grammar Translation Method is still one of the most popular and favourite models of language teaching, which has been rather stalwart and impervious to educational reforms, remaining a standard and sine qua non methodology. With hindsight, we could say that its contribution to language learning has been lamentably limited, since it has shifted the focus from the real language to a “dissected body” of nouns, adjectives, and prepositions, doing nothing to enhance a student’s communicative ability in the foreign language.

2.         THE DIRECT METHOD: GOUIN AND BERLITZ.

The last two decades of the nineteenth century ushered in a new age. In his The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages (1880), Francois Gouin described his “harrowing” experiences of learning German, which helped him gain insights into the intricacies of language teaching and learning. Living in Hamburg for one year, he attempted to master the German language by dint of memorising a German grammar book and a list of the 248 irregular German verbs, instead of conversing with the natives. Exulting in the security that the grounding in German grammar offered him, he hastened to go to the University to test his knowledge. To no avail. He could not understand a word! After his failure, he decided to memorise the German roots, but with no success. He went so far as to memorise books, translate Goethe and Schiller, and learn by heart

30,000 words in a dictionary, only to meet with failure. Upon returning to France, Gouin discovered that his three-year-old nephew had managed to become a chatterbox of French – a fact that made him think that the child held the secret to learning a language. Thus, he began observing his nephew and came to the conclusion (arrived at by another researcher a century before him!) that language learning is a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions and then using language to represent these conceptions. Equipped with this knowledge, he devised a teaching method premised upon these insights. It was against this background that the Series Method was created, which taught learners directly a “series” of connected sentences that are easy to understand. For instance,

I stretch out my arm. I take hold of the handle. I turn the handle. I open the door. I pull the door.

Nevertheless, this approach to language learning was short-lived and, only a generation later, gave place to the Direct Method, posited by Charles Berlitz.

The basic tenet of Berlitz’s method was that second language learning is similar to first language learning. In this light, there should be lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little if any analysis of grammatical rules and syntactic structures. In short, the principles of the Direct Method were as follows:

Classroom instruction was conducted in the target language

There was an inductive approach to grammar

Only everyday vocabulary was taught

Concrete vocabulary was taught through pictures and objects, while abstract vocabulary
was taught by association of ideas

The Direct Method enjoyed great popularity at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth but it was difficult to use, mainly because of the constraints of budget, time, and classroom size. Yet, after a period of decline, this method has been revived, leading to the emergence of the Audiolingual Method.

3. THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD.

The outbreak of World War II heightened the need for Americans to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies alike. To this end, bits and pieces of the Direct Method were appropriate in order to form and support this new method, the “Army Method” which came to be known in the 1950s as the Audiolingual Method.

The Audiolingual Method was based on linguistic and psychological theory and one of its main premises was the scientific descriptive analysis of a wide assortment of languages. On the other hand, conditioning and habit-formation models of learning put forward by behaviouristic phychologists were married with the pattern practices of the Audiolingual Method. The following points sum up the characteristics of the method:

Dependence on mimicry and memorisation of set phrases

Teaching structural patterns by means of repetitive drills (Repetitio est mater studiorum??)

No grammatical explanation

Learning vocabulary in context

Use of tapes and visual aids

Focus on pronunciation

•   Immediate reinforcement of correct responses

But its popularity waned after 1964, partly because of Wilga Rivers’ exposure of its shortcomings. It fell short of promoting communicative ability, as it paid undue attention to memorisation and drilling, while downgrading the role of context and world knowledge in language learning. After all, it was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation and errors were not necessarily bad or pernicious.

4. THE “DESIGNER” METHODS.

The Chomskyan revolution in linguistics drew the attention of linguists and language teachers to the “deep structure” of language, while psychologists took account of the affective and interpersonal nature of learning. As a result, new methods were proposed, which attempted to capitalise on the importance of psychological factors in language learning. David Nunan (1989: 97) referred to these methods as “designer” methods, on the grounds that they took a “one-size-fits-all” approach. Let us have a look at two of these “designer” methods.

4.1.      SUGGESTOPEDIA.

Suggestopedia promised great results if we use our brain power and inner capacities. Lozanov (1979) believed that we are capable of learning much more than we think. Drawing upon Soviet psychological research on yoga and extrasensory perception, he came up with a method for learning that used relaxation as a means of retaining new knowledge and material. It stands to reason that music played a pivotal role in his method. Lozanov and his followers tried to present vocabulary, readings, role-plays and drama with classical music in the background and students sitting in comfortable seats. In this way, students became “suggestible.”

Of course, Suggestopedia offered valuable insights into the “superlearning” powers of our brain but it was demolished on several fronts. For instance, what happens if our classrooms are bereft of such amenities as comfortable seats and Compact Disk players? Certainly, this method is insightful and constructive and can be practised from time to time, without necessarily having to adhere to all its premises. A relaxed mind is an open mind and it can help a student to feel more confident and, in a sense, pliable.

4.2.      THE SILENT WAY.

The Silent Way rested on cognitive rather than affective arguments, and was characterised by a problem-solving approach to learning. Gattegno (1972) held that it is in learners’ best interests to develop independence and autonomy and cooperate with each other in solving language problems. The teacher is supposed to be silent – hence the name of the method – and must disabuse himself of the tendency to explain everything to them.

The Silent Way came in for an onslaught of criticism. More specifically, it was considered very harsh, as the teacher was distant and, in general lines, the classroom environment was not conducive to learning.

4.3.TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE.

Total Physical Response is a language learning method based on the coordination of speech

Teacher’s Version                                                    Learner’s Version

1 Lower inhibitions                                                      Fear not

3 Build self-confidence                                               Believe in yourself

4 Develop intrinsic motivation                                                 Seize the day

5 Engage in cooperative learning                               Love thy neighbour

6    Use right-brain processes         Get the BIG picture

7    Promote Go with your hunchesambiguity tolerance    Cope with the chaos

8    Practice Make mistakes work FOR you intuition

9    Process error feedback

l0   Set personal goals   Set your own goals

These suggestions and injunctions are able to sensitise learners to the importance of attaining autonomy, that is, taking charge of their own learning, and not expecting the teacher to deliver everything to them.

5. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wi ki/Communicative_language_teaching

The need for communication has been relentless, leading to the emergence of the Communicative Language Teaching. Having defined and redefined the construct of communicative competence; having explored the vast array of functions of language that learners are supposed to be able to accomplish; and having proved the nature of styles and nonverbal communication, teachers and researchers are now better equipped to teach (about) communication through actual communication, not merely theorising about it.

At this juncture, we should say that Communicative Language Teaching is not a method; it is an approach, which transcends the boundaries of concrete methods and, similarly, techniques. It is a theoretical position about the nature of language and language learning and teaching.

Let us see the basic premises of this approach:

•  Focus on all of the components of communicative competence, not only grammatical or
linguistic competence Engaging learners in the pragmatic, functional use of language for
meaningful purposes

•  Viewing fluency and accuracy as complementary principles underpinning communicative
techniques

•  Using the language in unrehearsed contexts

5.1. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH.

It is assumed that the goal of language teaching is learner ability to communicate in the target language.

•  It is assumed that the content of a language course will include semantic notions and social
functions, not just linguistic structures.

•  Students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer (and, if necessary, negotiate) meaning
in situations where one person has information that the other(s) lack.

•  Students often engage in role-play or dramatization to adjust their use of the target
language to different social contexts.

•  Classroom materials and activities are often authentic to reflect real-life situations and
demands.

•  Skills are integrated from the beginning; a given activity might involve reading, speaking,
listening, and perhaps also writing.

•  The teacher’s role is primarily to facilitate communication and only secondarily to correct
errors.

• The teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately.

5.2.PROJECT WORK: A BRANCH OF THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH.

Project work is becoming an increasingly popular feature within the ELT classroom. Common projects are class magazines, group wall displays about students’ countries and designs

for cities of the future. A project involves students in deciding together what they want to do to complete a project whilst the teacher plays a more supporting role.

Some advantages of project work are:

•  Increased motivation - learners become personally involved in the project.

•  All four skills, reading, writing, listening and speaking, are integrated.

•  Autonomous learning is promoted as learners become more responsible for their own
learning.

•  There are learning outcomes -learners have an end product.

•  Authentic tasks and therefore the language input are more authentic.

•  Interpersonal relations are developed through working as a group.

•  Content and methodology can be decided between the learners and the teacher and within
the group themselves so it is more learner centred.

•  Learners often get help from parents for project work thus involving the parent more in
the child’s learning. If the project is also displayed parents can see it at open days or when
they pick the child up from the school.

•  A break from routine and the chance to do something different.

•  A   context   is   established   which   balances   the   need   for   fluency   and   accuracy.
Haines(1989)

These are the phases involved in Planning the Project:

• Opening

To give learners an idea of what projects are and what they should be aiming to produce, it is good to have examples of past projects: a photocopy of a previous group newspaper or a photograph of a wall display.

• Proposing

After explaining the idea behind the project we ask learners to propose a scheme of work:

•  What they want to include in the project.

•  What form it will take.

•  Who will be responsible for what.

•  An idea of the time it will take to produce each part of the project.

•  Any material or resources they might need.

We would then sit down with each group for 10 minutes to discuss their proposals (a copy of which both I and the learner would keep to refer to as the project develops). At this point the evaluation procedures would also be explained.

• Time

Allocate an agreed amount of time for the project. For a summer 60- hour course of 3 hours a day we might devote 5 hours to project work so approximately 6 sessions of 45 minutes each with a round-up session at the end. I would also have the sessions on the same day each week -Wednesday, and Friday, for example, so learners know to bring materials to class on that day.

• Space

Show the learners the space they will have for the project, it could be wall space or a corner of the classroom, so they have some idea how much material they should produce and can plan the layout.

• Materials and resources

Provide the learners with materials they might need: card, scissors glue, paper etc. It is fairly common now for learners to want to use the Internet to find information for their projects. Encourage a keen student with Internet to do this at home! If there is time and Internet available in the school make sure the students have informed you of exactly what they’re looking for, photos, or that they have prepared a list of information they want to find. Simply giving the learners time on the computers can lead to them aimlessly surfing the net. If the facility is available learners often like to write finished drafts of their work on the computer.

• Presentation

Projects need to be seen, read and admired so schedule the last project session as a presentation. Ask the group to prepare a task for the others in the class to do connected to the project: it could be a quiz with questions for a wall display, a crossword using vocabulary for the project or comprehension questions for a video that learners have made.

• Evaluation

As with any piece of work a project needs to be acknowledged and evaluated. It’s not enough to just say ‘that’s great’ after all the work learners have put in. We use a simple project evaluation report, which comments on aspects of the project such as content, design, language work and also evaluates the oral presentation stage of the project.

Some possible drawbacks to project work

Learners    using       their        own         language

If the class are monolingual they may use their L1 a lot (it often happens anyway in Young Learners’ classes) so you should decide whether the benefits of doing project work outweigh this factor.

Some           learners          doing             nothing.

By giving more freedom to the learners you may also be giving them the freedom to do nothing! If the project is planned carefully and roles decided at the proposal stage this is less likely to happen.

Groups     working      at          different     speeds.

One group may have ‘finished’ the project after a couple of hours and say they have nothing to do. Remind them it is their responsibility to fill the time allocated to project work and discuss ways they could extend the work they have already completed.

Examples of project work

A            project        based        on            readers.

At a summer school we could work on learners’ encouragement to have a reader during the month course. This is not always a popular requirement, so we would decide to have the learners use the readers in a way they might find motivating.

•  First we choose 4 different readers that had also been made into films – The Full
Monty, The Client, Dracula, Mosquito Coast. Each group would be given copies of
their reader.

•  The learners would then be given free reign to do whatever they liked as long as it
was somehow connected to the reader.

•  Examples of the work produced were:

•  Summaries of the story.

•  Crosswords word searches of vocabulary from the story.

•  Reviews of the book.

•  Information found about the history of Dracula.

•  Filmed scene from the book.

•  Presentation of a clip from the film of the book compared to a scene in the
book.

•  Biographies and photos of actors from the film.

•   Music Project.

If your class loves songs this could be a motivating project.

•  Make a CD Cover.

•  Invent the band and the names and biographies of the band members.

•  Video an interview with the band.

•  Record a song. (Students often borrowed the music and wrote their own
lyrics)

•  Write gig reviews.

•  Photo shoot of the band.

•  Design a poster advertising gigs.

6. CONCLUSION.

From all the above we can see that the manageable stockpile of research of just a few decades ago has given place to a systematic storehouse of information. Researchers the world over are meeting, talking, comparing notes, and arriving at some explanations that give the lie to past explanations. As Brown notes, “Our research miscarriages are fewer as we have collectively learned how to conceive the right questions”. Nothing is taken as gospel; nothing is thrown out of court without being put to the test. This “test may always change its mechanics, but the fact remains that the changing winds and shifting sands of time and research are turning the dessert into a longed-for oasis.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

•    LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

•    PAWLEY, A., & SYDER, F. (1983). Two puzzles for linguistic theory: Native-like selection
and native-like fluency. In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication.
London: Longman.

•    RICHARDS, J., & RODGERS, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language Teaching
(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

•    HOWATT, A. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Remember: will be tagged as Block 1 street 1 abstract

Topics 1-6 and 9-12 + topics 28, 38, 40

What do they have in common? They are topics on psycholinguistics, teaching methodology, pure grammar, rather abstract but important, with a heavy load of memory required. They include skills, some phonetics, semantics, word formation. They don’t include textual grammar or usage topics. Njoy